The Civil Rights Movement was a period in history, mainly during the 1950s and 1960s, when black people fought for their freedom from white supremacy. There was so much prejudice and violence against them from those who supported the Jim Crow Laws. Segregation was still a very big issue, but Rosa Parks stood up for herself when she refused to give up her seat to a white man on a bus (History).
Even with the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, African Americans still struggled to live their own American Dream. There were many violent protests during the Civil Rights Movement, and many black authors, including Amiri Baraka, wrote about the challenges African Americans faced.
Baraka was born on October 7th, 1934. He was the founder of the Black Arts Repertory Theatre and later received critical acclaim for his 1964 one-act play, Dutchman (Britannica).
Dutchman includes a close analysis of how black people are manipulated and tortured by the white man’s burden and white supremacy. It first debuted in 1964, and it follows a scene where a black man is cornered by a white woman and then murdered. The play’s symbolism is mind-boggling and perfectly matches the pain and suffering African Americans endured throughout history.
Some of Dutchman’s symbols include the legend of the Flying Dutchman, Franz Schubert’s lied “Erlkönig,” and the history of African Americans, but there are many more.
The play’s title is symbolic. It references the Dutch ships that carried enslaved people over during the colonial era. The slaves were treated harshly, and most of them did not survive the journey. White colonists trapped them in the ship’s hull and tied them close to one another in a mausoleum-like way. Women were kept on the ship’s deck, and sailors forced them to have children and do most of the chores.
As for the legend of the Flying Dutchman, it is said to be a mythical ghost ship, and its captain is doomed to an eternal curse unless he finds a woman willing to stay with him. The Dutchman never returns to port, as the Devil itself curses it (NPR). The Dutchman is portrayed in countless media, one of the most notable being the Pirates of the Caribbean movies. Baraka, though, put his own twist on the myth, evident in his play.
Lula is the Devil, and Clay is the captain from the story. The second Clay enters the subway, Lula already has plans to drag him to Davy Jones’s locker. Their conversation starts somewhat normal, and then Lula unleashes her power onto Clay—to remind him how white people see African Americans. The subway ride itself appears to go on and on, which symbolizes the long and grueling history of African Americans and how there is no end to racism. Racism itself is Dutchman’s curse.
The ocean is sometimes defined as a place where someone loses everything they hold dear, and that is very much true. Lula tosses Clay’s body over the side of the ship, which is symbolic of how bodies were tossed off the slave ships. White colonists did not care if the enslaved people died. They were eager to get rid of them once they did. The ones who survived were sold off like toys in a toy store, so just like The Dutchman, they are forever trapped in this one curse. Most will not find love. They will be forced to act in sexual situations to create more crew members for The Dutchman.
Lula is also reminiscent of the Erlkönig (Elf king), as mentioned in Franz Schubert’s lied “Erlkönig.”
Born in 1797, Schubert was an early Romantic composer who won multiple awards for his work (Biography). “Erlkönig” is based on a simple old German legend. The Devil, the Elf King, manipulates his victims to join him in his world, reminiscent of the Flying Dutchman. If the victim refuses, then he will only try harder. The legend goes that if the Erlkönig touches you, you’re dead. The lied follows the story of a boy and his father. The Elf King manipulates the boy and then kills him just like that.
Lula manipulates Clay. She constantly pressures him into trying to get him to tell her his life story and admits that African Americans have no place in a world full of white supremacy. “Oh, come on, ask me to your party,” Lula says. “I’m an actress,” “you are free from your own history,” etc. These are all manipulative statements. Lula is trying to get close to Clay, so she can kill him, by bragging about her world over his and how hers is better. The behavior is almost a carbon copy of “Erlkönig’s” English lyrics, which are as follows: “You dear child, come along with me! Such lovely games we’ll play together. Many colorful flowers are at the shore. My mother has many a golden garment (Schubert, “Erlkönig”).” Like Lula, this manipulative behavior lets the audience know she is indeed the enemy and will most likely kill Clay.
Lula’s apples are also symbols. They are a reference to the Bible story of Adam and Eve. Of course, the story is that they are not allowed to eat from one particular tree, but they do anyway, and God punishes them. Lula has taken an apple from this cursed tree, so that in itself is a warning sign to the audience. Even when she joins Clay, she continues to eat the fruit, which you could say is one of the sources of her power. The story of Adam and Eve is powerful, and it is understandable why Baraka combines it with the Flying Dutchman. They make for a perfect example of how white people show their power over African Americans.
In some historical events, the Harlem Renaissance is symbolized by Clay’s monologue, which references the “belly rub.” He argues that music, culture, and the arts are not enough for the African Americans’ fight against people like Lula. He wants to kill, but at the same time, he doesn’t want to. After all, murder is not the answer to problems. Clay even regrets his actions towards Lula, but she, being the Erlkönig, does not. Clay jumps into examples about black celebrities, such as Charlie Parker, and how they, too, are treated unfairly. Despite the issues, they do not give up or resort to killing. It’s a deep and saddening monologue, and like the play in its entirety, is full of symbols. Even though Clay stands up for himself and black people, he still cannot win the war. Lula is just too powerful, but only because she believes she has higher authority over him.
There is an old, colonial saying in African history about the “black poacher v the white hunter.” The words “poacher” and “hunter” have two very different meanings. The saying is an unnecessary stereotype about how Africans are not able to fend for themselves or maintain their own land. When they try to hunt for prey, they are often punished, unlike white hunters. These people have laws written in their favor, so they are not punished for hunting. In Dutchman, the symbolism of this biased saying is conveyed through some of the stereotypical behaviors Lula heaps on Clay. One of these stereotypical symbols is how she naturally guesses his name as being either Lloyd or Norman and his surname as either Jackson, Johnson, or Williams. She also tells him that she knows him “like the palm of my hand.” The line is extremely racist and manipulative, but Clay continues to fall for Lula’s so-called “flirting.”
The stereotypical responses and guesses persist for most of the play. Another example is when Lula assumes Clay’s background and his family’s. “Boy, those narrow-shoulder clothes come from a tradition you ought to feel oppressed by. Your grandfather was enslaved… (Dutchman).” Lula is taking advantage of the old, black poacher v white hunter saying in her own way by arguing that the only good thing that black people are for is slavery, since they cannot fend for themselves. With this biased thought in her head, she says that she knows how a black person should live.
A line in the play that symbolizes the idea of the black poacher v the white hunter is when Lula says that Clay is a murderer. A murderer, in her opinion, should be punished. She knows that she most likely will not be punished if she jumps in for the kill. Since the killing of black people by white people was so common during the Civil Rights Movement, it is no surprise that Lula thinks that way, even with no knowledge of the saying. Most likely, Baraka was not going for the black poacher v white hunter approach, but it does feel like it is buried in the play somewhere through the use of his symbols.
Symbols are very important in writing. They allow readers to use their imagination and close reading techniques to uncover the true meaning of a written work. Another saying in history is that historians do not tell the whole story—only a sliver of it. Therefore, symbols become even more crucial. Every line in Dutchman feels like a symbol of something Baraka is trying to convey to his audience. It feels like he is trying to tell the whole timeline of black history in the short play. Taking the approach that Clay and Lula’s conversation goes on and on—while it is a symbol of the Flying Dutchman sailing forever out on the open ocean—is an act of heroism in itself. Clay was very brave to stand up to Lula, even though he was her next victim. That goes to show the constant war that black Americans are fighting.
The sea itself is full of symbols, and a lot of those symbols can be tied to Dutchman, too. When Clay enters the subway, he does not know what to expect. He does not expect Lula to pull him into a trap and then stab him twice in the heart. Many different characters ride the subway, and it’s not always easy to tell what’s going through their minds. Like the sea, life is full of mysteries and unexpectedness. Black people lost everything when they were on the ships… A.K.A. their own Flying Dutchmans: their culture, their homes, their families, and their lives. However, what they didn’t lose was their willpower. Clay proves this in his monologue.
Likewise, there is a rumor flying around that the hurricanes that form off the African coasts are the enslaved people’s revenge on the white people, and on the captain who enslaved them on the Dutchman in the first place.
All in all, Dutchman is an undiscovered gem in the literary world that profoundly portrays African Americans’ experiences. Sometimes the best way to tell stories is through symbols. It does not matter where they come from, as long as they convey a message, which is also crucial when it comes to writing.
As mentioned before, Lula is a symbol of so many different things, things that Baraka most likely wasn’t aiming for: the Devil, the Erlkönig, white supremacy, and even a little bit of the black poacher v white hunter saying. That makes her a unique villain. While it is sometimes hard to pick up, there is always at least one villain in writing. It does not have to be a person. It can be nature, mental health issues, etc.
Thank you, Baraka, for writing such an engaging and disturbing piece. You go above and beyond to tell the story of African American history, both in the past and in the present. What makes your writing even more impressive is how you use symbolism to convey such emotions, pain, and fear. Dutchman is something that people will remember forever.
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